Sustainable façade material systems for high-rise buildings: A structured review of operational energy, comfort and embodied-carbon evidence
Main Article Content
Abstract
For high-rise buildings, the facade material selection is frequently based on the energy-saving, comfort and sustainability claims made by the manufacturers and trade-media. This paper looks at the extent to which such claims can be backed by peer-reviewed evidence for six popular façade systems: textile and membrane skins, double-skin façade, electrochromic glass, ceramic and terracotta ventilated façade, and external solar shading. The nine search strings were used in the Consensus academic search engine to conduct a structured literature review. Among 175 unique records, 70 studies were included and 27 studies reported operational-energy outcomes that were comparable. Energy savings reported varied from 20% up to 63% when compared to a reference case established for each of the studies. The difference in each system is as great as the difference between systems, and climate is the primary cause of it, with orientation, window-to-wall ratio and the performance of the reference façade being secondary. With regards to the performance in temperate and cold climates, the double-skin and lightweight membrane façade solutions proved to be good, but in hot climates, they were prone to overheating unless the cavity ventilation and shading were planned specifically. The energy benefit in ventilated ceramic and terracotta cladding was not because of the insulating properties of the cladding material but because of the outer insulation and the ventilated cavity. Some gains in operational carbon were often being undermined by embodied carbon, especially for aluminium intensive and double layer systems. A multi-criteria evidence matrix and climate specific selection guidance is suggested. The review findings are that none of the façade materials are sustainable on their own but that the sustainability of the materials is dependent on the climate fit, detailing, control strategy and whole-life carbon accounting.
Article Details
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
References
Ahriz, A., et al. (2022). The use of double-skin façades to improve the energy consumption of high-rise office buildings in a Mediterranean climate (Csa). Sustainability, 14, 6004.
https://doi.org/10.3390/su14106004
Aksamija, A. (2013). Sustainable facades: Design methods for high-performance building envelopes. Wiley.
Alabdulrazzaq, H., et al. (2025). A framework for circular facade design: Systematic review of design strategies and performance indicators. Journal of Cleaner Production.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2025.147140
Alabdulrazzaq, H., et al. (2026). Comparative study of conventional and emerging façade systems: Pathways to reducing embodied carbon and enhancing circularity in buildings. Energy and Buildings. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2026.117778
Aldawoud, A., et al. (2020). Double skin façade: Energy performance in the United Arab Emirates. Energy Sources, Part B: Economics, Planning, and Policy. https://doi.org/10.1080/15567249.2020.1813845
Attia, S., et al. (2022). Comparison of thermal energy saving potential and overheating risk of four adaptive façade technologies in office buildings. Sustainability, 14, 6106. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14106106
Bal, Y., et al. (2026). A new perspective in life cycle assessment enhanced by principal component analysis: A comparative case study of facade materials for sports and event building envelope. Ain Shams Engineering Journal. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.asej.2026.104399
Bianchi, S., et al. (2024). Multi-criteria design methods in façade engineering: State-of-the-art and future trends. Building and Environment. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2024.111184
Bonatesta, E., et al. (2025). Keeping cool with lower emissions: Comparing internal to external blinds as solar shading devices. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 1554, 012115. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/1554/1/012115
Budaiwi, I. (2023). Assessing the energy-saving potential and visual comfort of electrochromic smart windows in office buildings: A case study in Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. Sustainability, 15, 9632. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15129632
Castillo-DR, R., et al. (2026). Thermal performance evaluation of a double skin façade with latticework solar protection: A case study in a humid tropical climate (Panama). Energy and Buildings. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2025.116747
Celadyn, M., et al. (2025). Durability of building facades and sustainable architecture. Sustainability, 17, 9569. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17219569
Chandrasekaran, C., et al. (2025). Energy savings from the shading performance of devices in highly glazed multi-story office buildings in the tropical climates of China and India. Journal of Chinese Architecture and Urbanism. https://doi.org/10.36922/jcau025120026
Cheong, C., et al. (2024). Life cycle assessment of curtain wall facades: A screening study on end-of-life scenarios. Journal of Building Engineering. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2024.108600
Cho, J., et al. (2014). Viability of exterior shading devices for high-rise residential buildings: Case study for cooling energy saving and economic feasibility analysis. Energy and Buildings. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2014.07.092
Ciampi, G., et al. (2021). Energy performance of PVC-coated polyester fabric as novel material for the building envelope: Model validation and a refurbishment case study. Journal of Building Engineering. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2021.102437
Day, J. K., et al. (2019). Blinded by the light: Occupant perceptions and visual comfort assessments of three dynamic daylight control systems and shading strategies. Building and Environment. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2019.02.037
Detsi, M., et al. (2024). Effect of smart glazing with electrochromic and thermochromic layers on building’s energy efficiency and cost. Energy and Buildings. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2024.114553
Domínguez-Torres, C.-A., et al. (2022). Empirical and numerical analysis of an opaque ventilated facade with windows openings under Mediterranean climate conditions. Mathematics, 10(1), 163. https://doi.org/10.3390/math10010163
Dussault, J.-M., et al. (2017). Office buildings with electrochromic windows: A sensitivity analysis of design parameters on energy performance, and thermal and visual comfort. Energy and Buildings. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2017.07.046
Echenagucia, T. M., et al. (2022). On the tradeoffs between embodied and operational carbon in building envelope design: The impact of local climates and energy grids. Energy and Buildings. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2022.112589
Elhussein, S. (2025). The multi-objective optimisation for energy consumption and daylight of office buildings in London: Meshed façade energy study. World Journal of Science, Technology and Sustainable Development, 20(4), 297–337. https://doi.org/10.47556/j.wjstsd.20.4.2025.1
Fantucci, S., et al. (2020). An experimental sensitivity analysis on the summer thermal performance of an opaque ventilated façade. Energy and Buildings. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2020.110354
Fathi, S., et al. (2021). Effect of electrochromic windows on energy consumption of high-rise office buildings in different climate regions of Iran. Solar Energy. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2021.05.021
Feehan, A., et al. (2021). Adopting an integrated building energy simulation and life cycle assessment framework for the optimisation of facades and fenestration in building envelopes. Journal of Building Engineering. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2021.103138
Gagliano, A., et al. (2020). Analysis of the energy performance of an opaque ventilated façade under winter and summer weather conditions. Solar Energy. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2020.05.078
Habibi, S., et al. (2022). Sustainability performance by ten representative intelligent façade technologies: A systematic review. Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seta.2022.102001
Hamza, N. (2007). Double versus single skin facades in hot arid areas. Energy and Buildings. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2007.02.025
Hartwell, R., et al. (2021). Circular economy of façades: Real-world challenges and opportunities. Resources, Conservation and Recycling. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2021.105827
Hashemi, N., et al. (2010). Thermal behaviour of a ventilated double skin façade in hot arid climate. Energy and Buildings. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2010.05.019
Jelle, B. P., et al. (2019). Comparison of the energy saving potential of adaptive and controllable smart windows: A state-of-the-art review and simulation studies of thermochromic, photochromic and electrochromic technologies. Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solmat.2019.02.041
Kamelnia, H., et al. (2024). Enhancing daylight performance and visual comfort in office buildings with electrochromic glazing: A case study of Mashhad. Iranica Journal of Energy and Environment. https://doi.org/10.5829/ijee.2025.16.01.16
Kim, K. (2011). A comparative life cycle assessment of a transparent composite façade system and a glass curtain wall system. Energy and Buildings. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2011.09.006
Koç, S., et al. (2021). The effects of shading devices on office building energy performance in Mediterranean climate regions. Journal of Building Engineering. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2021.102653
Kuda, A., et al. (2025). Performance of PTFE-based adaptive building facades for climate resilience: A simulation-driven analysis. International Journal of Engineering, Science and Information Technology. https://doi.org/10.52088/ijesty.v5i4.1071
Lamnatou, C., et al. (2018). Ethylene tetrafluoroethylene (ETFE) material: Critical issues and applications with emphasis on buildings. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.08.072
Lau, A., et al. (2016). Potential of shading devices and glazing configurations on cooling energy savings for high-rise office buildings in hot-humid climates: The case of Malaysia. International Journal of Sustainable Built Environment. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijsbe.2016.04.004
Lin, Z., et al. (2022). An experimental study of the summer and winter thermal performance of an opaque ventilated facade in cold zone of China. Building and Environment. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2022.109108
Maciel, A. C. F., et al. (2019). Operational energy of opaque ventilated façades in Brazil. Journal of Building Engineering. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2019.100775
Mainini, A., et al. (2022). On the optical characterization of architectural three-dimensional skins and their solar control potential. Buildings, 12, 1103. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings12081103
Moghtadernejad, S., et al. (2018). Multi-criteria decision-making methods for preliminary design of sustainable facades. Journal of Building Engineering. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2018.05.006
Mohammed, A., et al. (2022). Reducing the cooling loads of buildings using shading devices: A case study in Darwin. Sustainability, 14, 3775. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14073775
Mokhtari, N., et al. (2023). Textile as second-skin façade for building envelope retrofitting: A numerical analysis on the comfort, energy and environmental impacts in different European climates. Building Simulation Conference Proceedings. https://doi.org/10.26868/25222708.2023.1484
Monticelli, C., et al. (2020). Material saving and building component efficiency as main eco-design principles for membrane architecture: Case-studies of ETFE enclosures. Architectural Engineering and Design Management. https://doi.org/10.1080/17452007.2020.1768507
Motalebi, M., et al. (2026). Integrated BIM–LCA–optimization for decarbonizing curtain wall façades under carbon pricing uncertainty. Building Research & Information. https://doi.org/10.1080/09613218.2026.2653037
Naddaf, M., et al. (2023). The role of double-skin facade configurations in optimizing building energy performance in Erbil city. Scientific Reports, 13. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-35555-0
Palmero-Marrero, A. I., et al. (2010). Effect of louver shading devices on building energy requirements. Applied Energy. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2009.11.020
Pizzatto, F., et al. (2025). Ventilated facade system: A review. Boletín de la Sociedad Española de Cerámica y Vidrio. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bsecv.2025.100443
Pomponi, F., et al. (2016). Energy performance of double-skin façades in temperate climates: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.10.075
Prieto, A., et al. (2024). What is your building doing for the city? Systematic literature review on the potential of façade design for the mitigation of urban environmental problems. Sustainability, 16, 7855. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16177855
Radhi, H., et al. (2012). Global warming implications of facade parameters: A life cycle assessment of residential buildings in Bahrain. Environmental Impact Assessment Review. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eiar.2012.06.009
Ranđelović, D., et al. (2026). Climate-specific performance of textile membrane sports halls: Energy efficiency, comfort, and economic assessment via EnergyPlus. Textiles, 6, 72. https://doi.org/10.3390/textiles6020072
Rasoulbaghal, M., et al. (2026). Evaluating passive and active cooling strategies in double-skin façades for hot, arid climates. Journal of Renewable and Sustainable Energy. https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0281924
Riganti, M., et al. (2025). Energy saving potential of advanced dual-band electrochromic smart windows for office integration. Energy and Buildings. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2024.115084
Roig, O., et al. (2024). Opaque ventilated façades: Energy performance for different main walls and claddings. Energy and Buildings. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2024.114280
Said, M. A., et al. (2026). Multiobjective optimization of double-skin façade performance using XGBoost and NSGA-II in buildings under hot climate conditions. International Journal of Energy Research. https://doi.org/10.1155/er/7007403
Saroglou, T., et al. (2020). Studies on the optimum double-skin curtain wall design for high-rise buildings in the Mediterranean climate. Energy and Buildings. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2019.109641
Sbar, N., et al. (2012). Electrochromic dynamic windows for office buildings. International Journal of Sustainable Built Environment. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijsbe.2012.09.001
Shafaghat, A., et al. (2022). Dynamic façades design typologies, technologies, measurement techniques, and physical performances across thermal, optical, ventilation, and electricity generation outlooks. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2022.112647
Sheweka, S. M., & Mohamed, N. M. (2012). Green facades as a new sustainable approach towards climate change. Energy Procedia, 18, 507–520. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egypro.2012.05.062
Spanodimitriou, Y., et al. (2025). Evaluating the performance of fixed 3D-printed and dynamic fabric modules in a second-skin façade system: A residential case study in Southern Italy at building and district scales. Buildings, 15, 189. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15020189
Srisamranrungruang, T., et al. (2026). Life carbon assessment of embodied and operational carbon with view assessment across facade systems in Japanese climate zones. Results in Engineering. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rineng.2026.109219
Stazi, F., et al. (2020). The role of wall layers properties on the thermal performance of ventilated facades: Experimental investigation on narrow-cavity design. Energy and Buildings. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2019.109622
Suo, H., et al. (2015). Thermal-physical behavior and energy performance of air-supported membranes for sports halls: A comparison among traditional and advanced building envelopes. Energy and Buildings. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2015.10.011
Tabadkani, A., et al. (2020). Design approaches and typologies of adaptive facades: A review. Automation in Construction. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.autcon.2020.103450
Takva, F. G., et al. (2026). Multi-parameter thermal performance and investment cost analysis of opaque ventilated facades in hot-humid climates. Architectural Engineering and Design Management. https://doi.org/10.1080/17452007.2026.2722977
Teixeira, H., et al. (2024). Simulation-based evaluation of the impact of an electrochromic glazing on the energy use and indoor comfort of an office room. Energies, 17, 2110. https://doi.org/10.3390/en17092110
Tian, G., et al. (2021). Indoor thermal environment of thin membrane structure buildings: A review. Energy and Buildings. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2020.110704
Uribe, D., et al. (2018). Potential of perforated exterior louvers to improve the comfort and energy performance of an office space in different climates. Building Simulation. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12273-018-0435-y
Zomorodian, Z., et al. (2018). Energy and carbon analysis of double skin façades in the hot and dry climate. Journal of Cleaner Production. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.06.178